The paper offers a distinctive reading of Popper’s work, suggesting that his Logic of Scientific Discovery (LScD) might be re-interpreted in the light of his Open Society. Indeed, Popper can be interpreted as criticising certain aspects of his first book, and as a result improving upon them, in his second. It suggests translating what Popper says about ‘conventions’ into his later vocabulary of ‘social institutions’. Looking back, I believe that Popper never intended the language of conventions and decisions to be read individualistically. I remain unsure whether Popper was himself quite as clear about this as he could have been.  My reading makes Popper a pioneer in the sociology of science. Scientific institutions are arenas of political power; but Popper did not discuss the structure and inter-relations of the social institutions of science, or offer a politics of science in the context of his methodology. What is missing from the skeletal sociology of LScD is the politics. We could put it in Popperian terms this way: scientific institutions are both open and closed. They are closed, firmly, to the inexpert, to the non-members; supposedly they are open to the qualified, provided the prerogatives of seniority and leadership are acknowledged. Despite these shortcomings, Popper’s critical and rational approach and his insistence on openness and intellectual honesty are still important today.

The political school of Herat, which was formed by the Islamic-mystical thoughts of Maulana Abdul Rahman Jami and a network of Timurid era scientists, is based on justice, peace, Persian language, tolerance and tolerance, the teachings of ancient Iran and Turkish teachings. - Mongolian emphasizes. Amir Ali Shirnavai, minister of the Timurian court, and Maulana Hossein Waez Kashifi, two of Jami's students, have played a valuable role in the development of Herat's political school. Through these two, Jami's teachings have entered the political societies of that period and have practically flowed through the court in the social and cultural context. Peace is one of the most key concepts that has overlapped with other concepts such as expediency, reconciliation, tolerance and tolerance and has crystallized in the theory and practice of the political school of Herat, so that the Timurid era is one of the most peaceful periods in the history of the region. goes This article, with the conceptual framework of Quentin Skinner's constructivist school and hermeneutic methodology, aims to answer the question of the place of peace between communities in the political thought of the Herat school. It seems that the presence of Maulana Jami, the leader of the Naqshbandi sect, who is known for his peace and tolerance; As a great cultural consultant of the court, he is one of the main reasons for the peaceful atmosphere of the Timurid period. By creating a network of mystic thinkers inside and outside the Timurid rule, Jami had proposed peace as the main state of that period.

"Thomas Hobbes" (1588-1679) one of the greatest of all political philosophers, and certainly the most brilliant and profound ever to have written in English. Hobbes's must influential writing in political philosophy span the period of English civil war, and are widely interpreted as an intellectual major work leviathan (1651) offered a justification for absolute political authority which purported to be a deduction from "human nature". Here Hobbes sets out first what he takes to be axioms of human behavior analogous to the geometrical axioms that underpin Euclid’s system. Hobbes axioms are that men are rational and desire above all their own preservation. Hence they are led by "a perpetual and restless desire of power after power". But I humans are possessed of rationality and foresight. They are thus able to recognize that their security would be better guaranteed by a voluntary act of giving over their individual power to an individual or group who would thereby be established a sovereign power over all of them.

No doubt that the specialized vocabulary in every science, represented those science, and scientific language as an integral part of every science. Any scientific study requires the loss of a coherent set of specific vocabulary of the discipline, synonyms for them, and suggest them to precisely define the areas of disagreement and eliminate possible misunderstandings.The etymological origin of ‘territory’ is often traced back to the Latin ‘terra’ (geographic area) and ‘terrere’ (to frighten: to terrorise).Territory is back. For long something of a poor relation among spatial concepts, and until recently on the wane politically, territory today seems to be ever more important. Borders, security, sovereignty, secession, invasion and occupation—all usually seen as close correlates of territory—are rarely out of the news. Meanwhile, in political theory and philosophy, the fashionable notion of deterritorialisation cannot be separated from a correlative reterritorialisation. Territory’s time has come, or so it seems.If any kind of space is quintessentially “state space”, it is surely “territory”. Yet, for all the far-reaching discussion of the territorial re-organization of the contemporary state, the decline and rise of the political salience of territory, and the implications of territory for the exercise of power, the nature of territory itself—it's being and becoming, rather than its consequences and effects—remains under-theorized and too often taken for granted. The intense engagement with diverse forms of social theory that has marked human geography since the 1980s has involved a comprehensive interrogation and re-thinking of many of the core concepts of the discipline, including space, place, landscape, region and scale. Until recently, however, the concept of territory has not received the same level of attention, at least in the Anglophone literature.It is interesting to think about the reasons for this relative neglect. It seems plausible to suggest that among critical human geographers the concept of territory may even have been seen as something of an embarrassment. There are a couple of possible explanations for this, particularly if we accept for the sake of argument that territory has usually been understood as a bounded and in some respects homogeneous portion of geographical space.Geographical thinking in the 1980s and 1990s came increasingly to emphasize the porosity and fluidity of boundaries, and the supposedly consequent reduction in their political salience. It also stressed the increasingly (or even intrinsically) heterogeneous character of space and place. In these circumstances, invoking the concept of territory risked being seen as either anachronistic (because the world had changed) or reactionary (because an insistence on seeing the world in terms of bounded and homogenous spaces suggested a fear of Otherness and an exclusionary attitude to social and cultural difference).The concept of territory may also have been embarrassing for some because of its ill-defined, but powerful associations with the use of similar concepts in animal ethology and socio-biology. After all, one of the commonest uses of the term “territory” in general discourse is to refer to the home range of an animal, particularly with reference to aggressive and defensive behaviors. Of course, anything that risks smuggling socio-biological assumptions into studies of human activity is anathema to most critical social scientists. A similar mistrust of ideas smacking of environmental determinism may have added to the suspicion with which the concept of territory has sometimes been regarded.Although many discussions of territory suggest that it is fundamentally a political phenomenon, the perception that it also often involves fixed borders perhaps raised the spectre of “natural boundaries” and nineteenth century understandings about the relationship between culture and environment: desert peoples, mountain peoples, forest peoples and plains peoples; each with a special ineffable bond between culture, nature and “territory”.The assertion of territorial control has been explained as an innate, instinctive inclination of human beings to possess and to defend an area against intruders, similar to animals. Although every individual human being requires some space to live, and feels emotionally attached to certain places, the diversity of political entities in the past and present shows that neither individuals nor social collectives seek instinctively fixed, closed, and clearly demarcated territories for their survival or the protection of property. People may feel more comfortable and relaxed when they control ‘their’ territory, yet the scale and size of the territory they consider as their ‘natural’ home, or as their fatherland - their backyard, city, region, village, state, federation, neighborhood, empire, etc. - is indeterminate.Political Geography has several concepts such as place, space, scale and territory, and so that the concepts are disputed. Concept of territory, according to many experts in the field of political geography, one of the most controversial concepts in this field. Choose the appropriate equivalent can help audience for easy understand. This study is fundamental theoretical, and descriptive analysis using primary sources in Persian and Latin, try to find the nature of the concept of territory and introduce appropriate equivalent in Persian political geography literature. As research founding's in appropriate equivalent for territory shows, political geographers use it in different meanings, beyond the understanding of natural geographers as a framework for natural processes, and also as human geographers consider the term mentioned as a static field of human events. In terms of political geography, territory is not only mere space for human action as physical framework, but is a clear reflection of "power relations between political actors", So that in several important aspects of social life and social power, such as function of "space control", "political actors", "borders and apply the monopoly rule" arises. So territory is field that individuals try to control by methods such as "defense", "control", "exclusion" and "inclusion", thus territory, in political geography literature confined space is defined by a boundary, that provides power and control for state; And thus the territory consist of the land, because the land is the physical and human (non-political) domain.

Islamic awakening in Iran and its impact on Egypt, Libya, Yemen, Bahrain, Jordan and other Middle Eastern countries the fruits of knowledge and conceptual change "Islam." Islam in the modern era and a new product concept as "Political Islam" is a formulation that is the Islamic tradition. Traditional Islam, the religion of the individual, and worship was limited despite a comprehensive definition of religion for worldly and otherworldly effect, King was not involved in justifying and legitimizing religious functions, he was a sultan of. Religion in the modern West was separated from worldly affairs, civic and community-based management or consultative basis of their wits. However, in Islamic societies and the Kemalist secular Westernized intellectuals Mtjddyn the paradoxical process of political Islam. Political Islam in the West to engage in confrontation with the West and the Islamic state is a semantic change. However, political Islam in contemporary flavor liberal and Marxist himself, but the reading "Islam Fqaht" the leadership of Imam Khomeini (RA) became the Islamic Revolution in 1357 his ideal Islamic state achieve democracy and religious to inspire if it run. This paper reviews the historical development, conceptual and knowledge of contemporary political Islam in Iran will pay.

In this essay the concept "positivity" and its diversion in Hegel's early thought (the Berne Era 1793-96 and the Frankfurt Era 1797-1800) are studied. Diversion of the concept "positivity" as the dominance of a system contradicting genuine freedom, necessitates Hegel's passage from the pure religious literature of Berne Era to the specifically political literature of Frankfurt Era. Accordingly, in comparison to the Berne Era, in the Frankfurt Era Hegel pays attention to a vaster social context which includes much more politico- economical elements. This essay is to explain the concept "positivity" according to Hegel's texts belonging to both eras and to show that Hegel could not find a way to eliminate "positivity" in both eras.

Globalization, more than a concept, is a process in which developing of sciences, technologies of production and information have changed many sides of life and brought some different approaches to them. Among these phenomena, power relations have significantly changed. Levels and aspects of development have interaction with other changing concepts and sometimes reject the patterns of modernization theories. As a result, political development criteria are not reliant and practical as they were in the past. Today, reductionism attitude in modem theories of development cannot analyze and solve most of social and political problems.Accordingly, we should regard some post-modern approaches to development following all aspects and levels such as environmental, political and economic considerations as well as internal and external sides of policy making. This is a new situation for human values to be different and concentrated while policy making, titling sustainable development approach.

The present paper investigated the effectiveness of concept mapping as a learning strategy on EFL students’ self-regulation (metacognitive self-regulation, time and study environment, effort regulation, peer learning, and help seeking). Sixty university students participated in the study. They were randomly assigned to control and experimental groups, each including thirty students. They were at the intermediate level of English proficiency and studying English either Translation or Literature. Their language proficiency was determined by the Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency (MTELP) (Corrigan, 1979). The instrument to collect data on the students’ selfregulation was the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) (Printrich et al., 1991). The findings revealed that students gained higher self-regulation in writing tasks as the result of the explicit instruction of the concept mapping strategy. The findings have implications for pedagogy as well as for research.

In the past century, based on its fluid nature and democratization process, politics has entered in new areas which they were not relevant before or not conceived as the political. Sports area is one of these new political arenas. In result of popularization, borders of sports and politics are changed and interfered. This phenomenon made joint territories for both of them. Diplomacy and diplomatic procedures are one of these territories that sports internationalization inevitably brought them to this arena and made recent and strategic concept of sports diplomacy. But despite the concept common make sense, its definitions and borders are not determined or explained. The study is to answer this question that what is sports diplomacy? Thus, we conceptually analyzed and explained the subject with exploratory approach and used documentary method to collect the needed data. ١ ٥ tools, appeared by objective and lived grounds, that can be used to accelerate development, to force soft power, to establish platforms for dialogue in multi-cultural societies and to promote peaceful relations between states.

Development and progress as a complex concept based on a process have various dimensions and levels usually studied in economic, political, social, and cultural development. Political development is one of the essential dimensions and indicators critical in theories and approaches to development in schools of thought and political sociology studies. While defining and clarifying the concept of "Political Excellence" and recognising the differences between it and the idea of "Political Development" and introducing the indicators of this exploratory concept, the present article examines them in terms of content from Ayatollah Khamenei's perspective. The main question is about the place of political excellence idea and progress in Ayatollah Khamenei's political thought. In response, it should be said that in his view, political excellence will be achieved by considering local conditions and domestic equipment, which is a new viewpoint and an acceptable model to replace with the concept of Western political development. Explaining the concept of political excellence, while considering the Western models of development unsuccessful, emphasising the indigenous Iranian-Islamic model of progress, he expressed seven signs and indicators for the desired model of political excellence and improvement, some of which, such as struggle, the spirit of risk-taking and discipline, the foundations of Islamic epistemology and attention to the two dimensions of human [body and soul], are the prelude to excellence and progress, and others, such as ensuring the independence of the country, producing the science and realising the social justice, is the result of excellence and improvement. In explaining the manifestations of political excellence and progress, he also expresses characteristics of the people such as awareness and insight, participation and presence in scenes and elections, and public monitoring and unity.